Life Cycle Assessment Student Handbook

<p>Preface ix</p>
<p>1 Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment 1</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 1</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 2</p>
<p>1.1 Purpose of the Student Handbook 2</p>
<p>1.2 Why LCA? 2</p>
<p>1.3 Evolution of Environmental toward Life Cycle Thinking 2</p>
<p>1.4 Examples of Environmental Impact Trade–Offs 7</p>
<p>1.5 LCA Methodology 11</p>
<p>1.6 Maintaining Transparency (Openness) 15</p>
<p>1.7 Conclusions 16</p>
<p>References 16</p>
<p>Chapter 1 Exercises 18</p>
<p>2 Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment 19</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 19</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 20</p>
<p>2.1 Introduction 20</p>
<p>2.2 Components of a Well–Defined Study 22</p>
<p>2.2.1 System Function 23</p>
<p>2.2.2 Functional Unit 23</p>
<p>2.2.3 Defining the System Boundaries (Scoping) 28</p>
<p>2.2.4 Co–Product Allocation 29</p>
<p>2.2.5 Impact Assessment 29</p>
<p>2.3 Consequential LCA 30</p>
<p>2.4 Carbon Footprint versus LCA 30</p>
<p>2.5 Creating a Goal Statement 31</p>
<p>2.6 Preparing a Goal and Scope Document 34</p>
<p>References 35</p>
<p>Appendix: Hypothetical Example of a Comparative, Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Support Government Decision Making 36</p>
<p>Chapter 2 Exercises 56</p>
<p>3 Life Cycle Inventory 61</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 61</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 62</p>
<p>3.1 Introduction 62</p>
<p>3.2 Modeling Inputs and Outputs 63</p>
<p>3.3 Methodology Issues 64</p>
<p>3.3.1 Cut–Off Rules 64</p>
<p>3.3.2 Co–Product Allocation 66</p>
<p>3.3.3 Postconsumer Recycling 68</p>
<p>3.3.4 Converting Scrap 71</p>
<p>3.3.5 Water Use 72</p>
<p>3.3.6 Carbon Tracking Considerations 73</p>
<p>3.4 Data Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 74</p>
<p>3.5 Databases and Data Sources 75</p>
<p>3.5.1 Private Industrial Data 77</p>
<p>3.5.2 Public Industrial Data 79</p>
<p>3.5.3 Dedicated LCI databases 79</p>
<p>3.5.4 Non–LCI Data 80</p>
<p>3.6 Collecting LCI Data 86</p>
<p>3.7 Reporting Life Cycle Inventory 86</p>
<p>3.8 Life Cycle Inventory Data Quality 89</p>
<p>3.9 Economic Input/Output (EIO) Data 92</p>
<p>3.10 Consequential LCA 93</p>
<p>3.11 LCA Software 94</p>
<p>3.11.1 Characteristics of LCA Software Systems 95</p>
<p>3.11.2 Web Tools versus Desktop Tools 95</p>
<p>3.11.3 Commercial Tools versus Freeware 110</p>
<p>3.11.4 Open Source versus Closed Source 111</p>
<p>3.11.5 General LCA Tools versus Specialized Tools versus Add–Ons 112</p>
<p>3.11.6 Two Basic LCA Software User Types and Their Needs 113</p>
<p>3.11.7 The LCA Software Market 114</p>
<p>3.11.8 The Main LCA Software Systems 115</p>
<p>References 117</p>
<p>Chapter 3 Exercises 136</p>
<p>4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 137</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 137</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 138</p>
<p>4.1 Introduction 138</p>
<p>4.2 Choice of Impact Models and Categories 142</p>
<p>4.3 Current LCIA Approaches 143</p>
<p>4.3.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 144</p>
<p>4.3.2 Global Warming Potential 145</p>
<p>4.3.3 Nonrenewable Resource Depletion Potential 147</p>
<p>4.3.4 Acidification Potential 149</p>
<p>4.3.5 Eutrophication Potential 150</p>
<p>4.3.6 Energy 151</p>
<p>4.4 The Agri–Food Sector 152</p>
<p>4.4.1 Land Use 152</p>
<p>4.4.2 Water Use 154</p>
<p>LCIA Models and Tools 158</p>
<p>References 159</p>
<p>Chapter 4 Exercises 205</p>
<p>5 Normalization, Grouping and Weighting in Life Cycle Assessment 207</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 207</p>
<p>Aims of the chapter 208</p>
<p>5.1 Introduction 208</p>
<p>5.2 Current Practice of Normalization and Weighting in LCIA 210</p>
<p>5.3 Principles of External Normalization 211</p>
<p>5.4 Issues with External Normalization 212</p>
<p>5.5 Inherent Data Gaps 212</p>
<p>5.6 Masking Salient Aspects 212</p>
<p>5.7 Compensation 214</p>
<p>5.8 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames 214</p>
<p>5.9 Divergence in Databases 214</p>
<p>5.10 Principles of Internal Normalization 215</p>
<p>5.11 Compensatory Methods 215</p>
<p>5.12 Partially Compensatory Methods 216</p>
<p>5.13 Weighting 217</p>
<p>5.14 Multi–Criteria Decision Making 219</p>
<p>References 220</p>
<p>Appendix: TRACI 2.1 Normalization Factors 222</p>
<p>6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and Reporting 225</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 225</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 226</p>
<p>6.1 Introduction 226</p>
<p>6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO 228</p>
<p>6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 230</p>
<p>6.3.1 Uncertainty Analysis 230</p>
<p>6.3.2 Uncertainty in Impact Models 230</p>
<p>6.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis 231</p>
<p>A SIMPLE BUT NON–LINEAR SYSTEM 232</p>
<p>6.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation 233</p>
<p>6.4 Contribution Analysis 234</p>
<p>6.5 Presenting LCIA Results 236</p>
<p>6.6 Preparing the Final Report 236</p>
<p>6.7 The Review Process 241</p>
<p>6.7.1 ISO–Defined LCA Review 241</p>
<p>6.7.2 Conduct of an LCA Review 242</p>
<p>6.7.3 Review of Inventory Data 243</p>
<p>6.7.4 Timing the Review 243</p>
<p>6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations 244</p>
<p>6.8.1 Type III Environmental Product Declarations 245</p>
<p>6.8.2 An EPD is a Document 245</p>
<p>6.8.3 An EPD is Primarily Based on LCA 246</p>
<p>6.8.4 An EPD is Developed by Following a Product Category Rule 246</p>
<p>6.8.5 An EPD can contain other Relevant Information beyond the LCA 246</p>
<p>6.8.6 Further Information on EPDs and PCRs 247</p>
<p>References 247</p>
<p>Chapter 6 Exercises 249</p>
<p>7 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment 253</p>
<p>References from the LCA Handbook 253</p>
<p>Aims of the Chapter 253</p>
<p>7.1 Introduction 254</p>
<p>7.2 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability 255</p>
<p>7.3 A Framework for LCSA 258</p>
<p>7.3.1 Broadening of the Object of Analysis 260</p>
<p>7.3.2 Broadening of the Spectrum of Indicators 261</p>
<p>7.3.3 Deepening 264</p>
<p>7.4 Social Responsibility 266</p>
<p>7.4.1 The Social LCA Framework 267</p>
<p>7.4.2 Iterative process of Social Life Cycle Assessment 268</p>
<p>7.4.3 SLCA and other Key Social Responsibility References and Instruments 275</p>
<p>7.5 Research Needs for LCSA Methodology 279</p>
<p>References 281</p>
<p>Chapter 7 Exercises 286</p>
<p>8 Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment 287</p>
<p>Books 287</p>
<p>Organizations 288</p>
<p>LCA Centers and Societies 292</p>
<p>Glossary 297</p>