Global Approaches to Site Contamination Law

<p>Contents:</p><p>1. Introduction<br>1.1  Site Contamination Law in the Broader Context of Environmental Law<br>1.2  Terminology of Site Contamination  <br>1.2.1  ‘Site’ versus ‘Land, Soil and/or Water’      <br>1.2.2  ‘Contamination’ versus ‘Pollution’</p><p> </p><p>2. The Nature and Extent of Site Contamination</p><p>2.1  Sources and Effects of Site Contamination</p><p>2.1.1  Common Types of Contaminating Activities        </p><p>2.1.2  Common Contaminants                              </p><p>2.1.3  Effects of Contamination     </p><p>2.2  Extent of Site Contamination </p><p>2.2.1  Geographical Locations and Trends</p><p>2.2.2  Number of Contaminated Sites and Proportion of Land Mass Affected</p><p>2.3  Remediation of Site Contamination – Common Approaches      </p><p>2.4  Progress in Remediation</p><p>2.5  Economic Considerations in Remediation of Site Contamination         </p><p>2.6  Regulatory Trends in Remediation of Site Contamination           </p><p>2.6.1   Historical Perspective – Trend to Site-Based Risk Assessment</p><p>2.6.2  Modern Approach – From Regulation to Brownfields Redevelopment          </p><p>2.6.3  Post-Remediation Measures (‘Long-Term Stewardship’)          </p><p> </p><p>3. Current International Law Relating To Site Contamination</p><p>3.1  Terminology</p><p>3.1.1   International Law</p><p>3.1.2   Regional Law</p><p>3.1.3   Bilateral Law</p><p>3.1.4   Soft Law</p><p>3.1.5   Customary Law</p><p>3.2 Regulatory Measures   </p><p>3.2.1   Soil Protection          </p><p>3.2.2   Pollution and Pollutants     </p><p>3.2.3   General Environmental Protection           </p><p>3.3  Liability Measures</p><p>3.3.1   State Responsibility            </p><p>3.3.2  Civil Liability for Environmental Harm   </p><p>3.4  Summary</p><p>3.5Conclusions and Analysis                   </p><p> </p><p>4. National Site Contamination Law                    </p><p>4.1  Definition of ‘National Site Contamination Law’                            </p><p>4.2  Categories of Site Contamination Law        </p><p>4.2.1 Countries with Extensive, Specific Provisions on Site Contamination           </p><p>4.2.2 Countries with Limited, Specific Provisions on Site Contamination    </p><p>4.2.3    Countries with No Provisions on Site Contamination </p><p>4.3  An Overview of National Site Contamination Law                         </p><p>4.3.1  Countries With Extensive, Specific Site Contamination Law   </p><p>4.3.2  Countries With Limited, Specific Legislation                   </p><p>4.3.3  Countries With No Specific Site Contamination Law    </p><p>4.4  Key Trends and Issues in The Development of National Site Contamination Law     </p><p>4.4.1  Concentration of Site Contamination Legislation                       </p><p>4.4.2  Regulatory ‘Model’ or Approach                 </p><p>4.4.3  Brownfields Legislation                   </p><p>4.4.4  Policy versus Law and Technical/Scientific Standards                         </p><p>4.4.5  Key Features of Site Contamination Regimes in Specific Jurisdictions        </p><p>4.4.6  Factors Influencing Developments in Site Contamination Law                       </p><p>4.4.7   Influence of ‘Models’ with Particular Countries                         </p><p>4.4.8   Influence of Costs of Cleanup                  </p><p> </p><p>5. Responsibility for Site Contamination</p><p>5.1  Definition of Responsible Parties     </p><p>5.2  Nature of Liability                                 </p><p>5.2.1  Retrospectivity           </p><p>5.2.2  Strict Liability</p><p>5.2.3  Fault-Based Liability</p><p>5.2.4  Joint and Several Liablity</p><p>5.2.5   Proportionate Liability</p><p>5.3  Mechanisms for Imposing Liability                </p><p>5.3.1   The ‘Command and Control’Approach</p><p>5.3.2   Non-Traditional Mechanisms        </p><p>5.3.3   Transfer of Liability</p><p>5.4  Remediation of ‘Orphan’ Sites                                                          </p><p> </p><p>6. Promoting National Site Contamination Law: The Challenge of Harmonisation                                                            </p><p>6.1  Defining Harmonisation         </p><p>6.2  Types of Harmonisation                      </p><p>6.2.1   Binding Protocol to an Existing Treaty, or a New/Amended Binding Treaty                   </p><p>6.2.2   Loan Conditions and Bilateral Aid Agreements                   </p><p>6.2.3   High-Level Declarations or Resolutions </p><p>6.2.4   Guidelines or Recommendations                               </p><p>6.2.5   ISO Standards               </p><p>6.2.6   Codes of Practice                       </p><p>6.2.7   A Model Law or Policy                                       </p><p>6.2.8   Emulation of ‘State of the Art’ Practices in Other Jurisdictions           </p><p>6.2.9   Emulation Due to Market Pressure          </p><p>6.3   Justifications for Harmonisation                   </p><p>6.4   Qualifications and Limitations Relating to Harmonisation          </p><p>6.5   Overcoming the Limitations of Harmonisation                   </p><p>6.6   Who Might Promote Harmonisation of Site Contamination </p><p>Law, and How?                                                                                </p><p> </p><p>7. An International Response to Site Contamination                           </p><p>7.1 Reasons for an International Response to Site Contamination   </p><p>7.2       Site Contamination as a Matter of International Concern        </p><p>7.3       Examples of Recent International Regimes on Related or </p><p>Similar Matters                                                                                  </p><p>7.3.1   Chemicals and Contaminants                              </p><p>7.3.2   Soils/Degradation    </p><p>7.3.3   The Key Role of UNEP in Initiating New International Agreements  </p><p>7.3.4   Conclusions                                                 </p><p>7.4       The Appropriate Form of an International Instrument               </p><p>7.4.1   A Binding International Instrument</p><p>7.4.2   Soft Law Options</p><p>7.4.3   A Regional Approach?</p><p>7.5       Possible Content of an International Instrument                                   </p><p> </p><p>8. Alternatives to International Law – Other Means of Promoting National Site Contamination Law                                          </p><p>8.1 Outline of Alternatives              </p><p>8.1.1   Global and Regional Lending Institutions          </p><p>8.1.2   Bilateral Aid Initiatives        </p><p>8.1.3   ISO Standards          </p><p>8.1.4   Voluntary Codes of Practice          </p><p>8.1.5   A ‘Model Law’ on Site Contamination     </p><p>8.2       Comparative Evaluation of All Options                            </p><p>9. Recommended Features of a Model Law on Site Contamination              </p><p>9.1 Scope of a Model Law on Site Contamination</p><p>9.1.1   New versus Amended Legislation                        </p><p>9.1.2   A Universal Definition of Site Contamination    </p><p>9.1.3 Allocation of Liability for Remediation</p><p>9.1.4 Role of Private Professionals</p><p>9.1.5 Regulatory Process for Remediation</p><p>9.1.6 Voluntary Remediation/Brownfield Measures                  </p><p>9.1.7 Post-Remediation Measures</p><p>9.1.8 Public Participation                                       </p><p>9.2       How a Model Law on Site Contamination Might be Developed                      </p><p>9.2.1   Achieving Legitimacy, Transparency and Sensitivity to Local Conditions – Prior Assessment and Consultation</p><p>9.2.2   Securing the Uptake of Legislation Based on the Model Law                        </p><p>9.2.3   The Mechanics of Developing and Promoting a Model Law               </p><p>9.2.4   Who Will Prepare and Promote the Model Law?</p><p> </p><p>10. Conclusions and Recommendations                        </p><p>10.1    Lack of International Law and Policy on Site Contamination             </p><p>10.2    The Need for Specific National Regulatory Regimes on Site</p><p> Contamination        </p><p>10.3    Lack of Consistent Approaches to Site Contamination Law</p><p>and Policy at the National Level               </p><p>10.4    The Case for Harmonisation of Site Contamination Law         </p><p>10.4.1 Top-Down Harmonisation – The Prospects of an International Instrument on Site Contamination                                                  </p><p>10.4.2 Bottom-Up Approaches – A Model Law on Site Contamination         </p>10.5    Summary