Risk and Crisis Communications – Methods and Messages

List of Tables ix
<p>Preface xi</p>
<p>1 INTRODUCTION 1</p>
<p>2 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF RISK AND CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS 5</p>
<p>Historical Background 5</p>
<p>Key Defi nitions 7</p>
<p>The Stages of a Crisis 10</p>
<p>The Process of Communication 11</p>
<p>The Purpose and Objectives of the Communication Event 13</p>
<p>References 17</p>
<p>3 COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS 19</p>
<p>Audience Perceptions of the Communicator 19</p>
<p>Trust and Credibility 21</p>
<p>Four Theoretical Models 25</p>
<p>The Risk Perception Model 26</p>
<p>The Mental Noise Model 28</p>
<p>The Negative Dominance Model 28</p>
<p>The Trust Determination Model 29</p>
<p>Risk = Hazard + Outrage 30</p>
<p>High Hazard/Low Outrage ("Watch out!") 31</p>
<p>Medium Hazard/Medium Outrage (Stakeholder Relations) 32</p>
<p>Low Hazard/High Outrage ("Calm down!") 32</p>
<p>High Hazard/High Outrage ("We′ll get through this together.") 33</p>
<p>Mental Models 33</p>
<p>Functional Lines of Communication 35</p>
<p>Care Communications 35</p>
<p>Consensus Communications 36</p>
<p>Crisis Communications 36</p>
<p>The Excellence Theory 37</p>
<p>The Stickiness of Messages 38</p>
<p>References 38</p>
<p>4 CRAFTING RISK AND CRISIS MESSAGES SETTING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES AND AUDIENCE PROFILING 41</p>
<p>Key Successful Message Development Concepts 41</p>
<p>Message Crafting Determining Purpose and Objectives 43</p>
<p>Message Development Constraints 45</p>
<p>Profi ling Audiences Who Are They and What Do They Want? 46</p>
<p>Profi ling Audiences How Do They Process and Perceive the Risk? 50</p>
<p>References 52</p>
<p>5 CRAFTING RISK AND CRISIS MESSAGES DEVELOPING THE WORDS 55</p>
<p>Crafting Messages Overarching Principles 55</p>
<p>Conveying Empathy 57</p>
<p>Audience Emotions Anger 59</p>
<p>Audience Emotions Mistrust 63</p>
<p>Audience Emotions Fear, Panic, and Apathy 63</p>
<p>Message–Crafting Techniques 66</p>
<p>Infl uence Diagrams The Mental Models Approach 67</p>
<p>Message Mapping 70</p>
<p>References 75</p>
<p>6 DELIVERING THE MESSAGE WHILE AVOIDING COMMON MISTAKES 77</p>
<p>Message Delivery Templates 77</p>
<p>The Use of Visuals in a Communication Event 82</p>
<p>Delivering the Message in the Age of the Internet 85</p>
<p>Common Message Delivery Mistakes and Effective Corrections 89</p>
<p>Failing to Communicate Technical Information 89</p>
<p>Failing to Help the Audience Understand&nbsp;the Uncertainly of Most Risk Information 90</p>
<p>Trying to Compare Risks 90</p>
<p>Making Value Judgments about "Acceptable" Levels of Risk 90</p>
<p>Being Concerned That an Audience Will Panic 91</p>
<p>Using Words That Imply Negative Behaviors 91</p>
<p>Responding Too Quickly or Not Quickly Enough 91</p>
<p>Failing to Speak with One Voice 92</p>
<p>The Use of Content Analysis and Readability Analyses 93</p>
<p>Evaluating the Communication Event 94</p>
<p>References 98</p>
<p>7 WORKING WITH THE MEDIA 101</p>
<p>Level of Organizational Expertise 102</p>
<p>Advance Development of Relationships with the Media 103</p>
<p>The Various Roles of the Media 104</p>
<p>Constraints of the Media and Media Representatives 105</p>
<p>What the Media Needs from an Organization 106</p>
<p>Fair Media Coverage 108</p>
<p>Developing a Media Communications Plan 109</p>
<p>Getting the Accurate Message Out 110</p>
<p>Choosing a Spokesperson 111</p>
<p>Preparing for an Interview 113</p>
<p>After the Interview 114</p>
<p>References 119</p>
<p>8 DEVELOPING A RISK AND CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS PLAN 121</p>
<p>Defi ning Acceptable Risk 122</p>
<p>Risk Assessment Tools Summary 122</p>
<p>Key Planning Guidelines and Processes 124</p>
<p>Key Plan Elements 129</p>
<p>References 131</p>
<p>9 SPECIAL RISK AND CRISIS COMMUNICATION SITUATIONS 133</p>
<p>Crisis Communication Principles 133</p>
<p>Worst–Case Scenarios 135</p>
<p>Dealing with an Outraged Audience in a Crisis 137</p>
<p>Dealing with an Ambivalent Audience in a Crisis 138</p>
<p>Some Additional Guidelines 141</p>
<p>Dealing with Fatalities 141</p>
<p>Dealing with Rumors 144</p>
<p>References 150</p>
<p>10 CASE STUDIES 153</p>
<p>The H1N1 Pandemic of 2009 2010 154</p>
<p>Involvement of Stakeholders in the Strategy Planning Process 155</p>
<p>Public Health Education about Pandemics 157</p>
<p>How Bad Is a Pandemic Really? Reducing Trust and Credibility 161</p>
<p>Over–Reassuring the Public about Vaccine Availability 163</p>
<p>Success of the Government′s and Public Health System′s Efforts 170</p>
<p>The BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 171</p>
<p>Profi ling the Audience Risk Perception 173</p>
<p>Understanding the Technical Nature of the Spill 173</p>
<p>Trust and Credibility 178</p>
<p>Worst–Case Scenario How Much Oil? 179</p>
<p>Worst–Case Scenario How Long Until the Leak Is Stopped? 186</p>
<p>Choosing a Spokesperson Wisely and Knowing When to Let Them Go 188</p>
<p>References 189</p>
<p>11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 193</p>
<p>Theoretical Models and Frameworks 194</p>
<p>Crafting Risk and Crisis Messages 195</p>
<p>Message Delivery 197</p>
<p>Working with the Media and Choosing a Spokesperson 199</p>
<p>Developing a Risk/Crisis Communications Plan 201</p>
<p>Special Risk and Crisis Communications Situations 202</p>
<p>Case Studies 205</p>
<p>What It All Means for You and Your Organization 206</p>
<p>References 207</p>
<p>Index 209</p>